Compare ETS
Use this function to compare the design elements and characteristics of up to three ETSs from around the world.
EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS)
General Information
Operational since 2005, the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is the oldest cap-and-trade system in force. It is a cornerstone instrument of the EU’s policy framework to combat climate change under the “European Green Deal” and reduce GHG emissions cost-effectively. Until 2023, the system covered emissions from over 10,000 installations and airlines operating in the EU. Collectively, they represent around 38% of the EU’s total emissions. From 2024, emissions from large ships are included in the EU ETS.
The EU ETS is currently in its fourth trading phase (2021 to 2030). Every year, covered entities must surrender allowances for their emissions under the EU ETS. Auctioning is the main method of distributing allowances, with free allocation, based on benchmarks, issued to address the risk of carbon leakage.
The EU ETS was revised in 2023 in the context of the European Green Deal to align the system with the 2030 climate target of at least 55% net emissions reductions compared to 1990 levels.
In the first half of 2023, the EU adopted important reforms of the EU ETS framework as part of:
- the “Fit for 55” package, to align the system with the EU’s 2030 climate target of at least 55% net emissions reductions compared to 1990 levels and the European Green Deal objectives,
- the EU’s response to the energy crisis caused by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (“REPowerEU” plan).
These reforms:
- increased the ambition and expanded the scope of the EU ETS to maritime transport, and introduced a new, separate emissions trading system for buildings, road transport and additional sectors* (ETS 2)**;
- strengthened the Market Stability Reserve (MSR);
- updated the EU ETS regarding aviation;
- updated the rules of the monitoring and reporting of emissions from maritime transport;
- created the Social Climate Fund to complement the new ETS 2; and
- established a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism to address the risk of carbon leakage from specific sectors under the EU ETS (as an alternative to free allocation).
They are in force and their implementation has followed in the second half of 2023.
In May, the European Commission published the seventh communication on the MSR indicator. In addition to managing the supply of allowances to auctions, from 2023 onward the MSR cancels allowances in its holdings above a certain threshold. At the start of January 2023, 2.5 billion allowances from the MSR were cancelled.
To address the impact of the energy crisis following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the Commission put forward targeted reforms and investments to phase out the EU’s dependence on fossil fuel imports, ensure the security of the energy supply, promote energy efficiency, and accelerate the clean energy transition. The REPowerEU Regulation mobilizes the ETS Innovation Fund as one of the funding sources. At the same time, it directs 27 million unallocated allowances from the MSR, which would otherwise become cancelled, to replenish the Innovation Fund.
* Mainly industry sectors not covered under the existing EU ETS.
** See ETS 2 factsheet.
Emissions & Targets
3,468.3 MtCO2e (2021)
By 2030: Reduce net emissions to at least 55% below 1990 GHG levels (European Climate Law)
By 2050: Climate neutrality (European Climate Law)
EUR 83.24 (USD 90.00) (average 2023 auction price; updated prices available here)
EUR 83.47 (USD 90.25) (average secondary market price 2022)
Size & Phases
PHASE ONE: Three years (2005 to 2007)
PHASE TWO: Five years (2008 to 2012)
PHASE THREE: Eight years (2013 to 2020)
PHASE FOUR: Ten years (2021 to 2030)
A cap limits the total emissions allowed in the system It is set to bring emissions down by 2030 by 62% compared to 2005.
PHASE ONE and PHASE TWO: The cap was calculated bottom-up, based on the aggregation of the national allocation plans of each Member State. Phase 1 started with a cap of 2,096 MtCO2e in 2005; Phase 2 started with a cap of 2,049 MtCO2e in 2008.
PHASE THREE:
Installations: A single EU-wide cap was calculated based on emissions’ monitoring and set at 2,084 MtCO2e in 2013. It was reduced annually by a linear factor of 1.74% (applied to the midpoint of 2008-2012 baseline emissions). This translated into a year-on-year reduction of the cap by some 38 million allowances and resulted in a cap of 1,816 MtCO2e in 2020.
Aviation: Included in the EU ETS in 2012, with a cap calculated separately. Legally, the system covers all outgoing and incoming flights to the EEA. The 2012 cap for aviation amounted to 221 million MtCO2e (95% of 2004 to 2006 emissions). In 2013, however, the EU temporarily limited ETS obligations to flights within the EEA to support the development of a global market-based measure to reduce aviation emissions by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The number of aviation allowances put into circulation in 2013 to 2016 was reduced to 38 million allowances annually. This ‘stop-the-clock’ limited scope of the EU ETS for aviation was extended until 2023.
PHASE FOUR:
From Phase 4, the linear reduction factor applies annually to the overall cap. The factor is set at 2.2% per year (of 2008 to 2012 baseline emissions) for the period 2021 to 2023, 4.3% for the period 2024 to 2027 and 4.4% from 2028. The cap is also reduced in two steps, by 90 million allowances in 2024 and 27 million allowances in 2026.
Installations: A single EU-wide cap subject annually to the linear reduction factor. Following the 2023 ETS revision, the cap in 2024 amounts to 1,386 MtCO2e. From 2021, the UK is no longer part of the EU ETS except for electricity generators in Northern Ireland.
Maritime: The 2024 cap has been increased by 78.4 million allowances based on the sector’s average emissions reported for 2018 and 2019.
Aviation: The aviation cap in 2024 amounts to 28.9 MtCO2e.
From Phase 4, a Member State may cancel allowances from their auction share if they take additional policy measures that result in a closure of electricity generation capacity. The quantity of allowances cancelled shall not exceed the average verified emissions of the installation from five years preceding the closure.
The EU ETS scope in terms of activities and greenhouse gases is specified in Annex I and Annex II of the “ETS Directive”.
PHASE ONE: Power stations and other combustion installations with >20 MW thermal rated input (except hazardous or municipal waste installations), industry (various thresholds) including oil refineries, coke ovens, and iron and steel plants, as well as production of cement, glass, lime, bricks, ceramics, pulp, paper, and cardboard.
PHASE TWO: Several countries included NOx emissions from the production of nitric acid. The EU ETS also expanded to include Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway.
Aviation: Emissions from international aviation were included in the EU ETS in 2012 (>10,000 tCO2/year for commercial aviation; >1,000 tCO2/year for non-commercial aviation since 2013). However, the EU temporarily limited the scope of the EU ETS for aviation to flights within the EEA. Exemptions for operators with low emissions were introduced.
PHASE THREE: Carbon capture and storage installations, production of petrochemicals, ammonia, nonferrous and ferrous metals, gypsum, aluminum, as well as nitric, adipic, and glyoxylic acid (various thresholds) were added to the scope.
Aviation: In 2017, the limited scope of the EU ETS for aviation was extended until 2023 to support the development of a global measure for aviation emissions under ICAO. Under the Linking Agreement between the EU and Switzerland, from 2020, the EU ETS covers emissions from outgoing flights to Switzerland.
PHASE FOUR: Amendments introduced in view of the UK’s departure from the EU and in the 2023 revision of the EU ETS.
Power and industry: The scope of ETS and benchmarks used for free allocation is broadened from 2024 to remove barriers for the deployment of new technologies such as green hydrogen or hydrogen-based steel.
Aviation: Under the “Trade and Cooperation Agreement” between the EU and the UK, the EU ETS applies to emissions from flights departing from the EEA to the UK from 2021 (the UK ETS applies to flights departing to EEA airports).
Emissions from most flights to and from the EU’s nine outermost regions as well as from departing flights from these regions to Switzerland and the UK are added to the scope from 2024.
Maritime: From 2024, emissions from all large ships (of 5,000 gross tonnage and above) entering EU ports are covered by the EU ETS, regardless of the flag they fly, covering:
- 50% of emissions from voyages starting or ending outside the EU;
- 100% of emissions that occur between two EU ports and when ships are in EU ports.
Initially, the scope extension to maritime transport concerns CO2 emissions and then CH4 and N2O emissions from 2026.
The obligation for maritime companies to surrender allowances for their emissions is being gradually phased in.
- 2025: for 40% of emissions reported in 2024;
- 2026: for 70% of emissions reported in 2025;
- 2027 onward: for 100% of emissions reported in 2026 and later years.
To ensure environmental integrity during the phase-in, Member States will cancel the number of allowances equivalent to the difference between the surrendered allowances and the verified emissions in 2024 and in 2025.
Point source
2022: 8,640 installations, 390 aircraft operators
The number of regulated shipping companies will become known throughout 2024.
Allowance Allocation & Revenue
PHASE ONE: Allocation was based on Member States’ national allocation plans. Allowances were allocated through grandparenting. Some Member States used auctioning and some used benchmark-based allocation.
PHASE TWO:
Auctioning: Eight Member States (Germany, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Austria, Ireland, Hungary, Czechia, and Lithuania) held auctions corresponding to ~3% of the total allowance allocation.
Free allocation: ~90% of allowances were allocated for free.
PHASE THREE:
Auctioning: The main method of distributing allowances, accounting for up to 57% of the cap. Of the share of allowances to be auctioned, 88% were distributed to Member States based on verified 2005 or average 2005 to 2007 emissions; 10% were allocated between 16 lower-income Member States under the solidarity provision; and the remaining 2% were allocated between the Member States that had reduced their emissions by at least 20% compared to the applicable base year under the Kyoto Protocol.
Free allocation: A significant volume of allowances was allocated for free to address the risk of carbon leakage, based on sectors-specific performance benchmarks. As the demand for free allowances exceeded the volume of allowances available, the free allocation of each installation was subject to a uniform cross-sectoral correction factor — which was revised in 2017.
Power: Auctioning, with an optional transitional free allocation for the modernisation and diversification of electricity generation in ten lower-income Member States. At the end of Phase 3, eligible Member States could decide to continue using this option in Phase 4 (2021 to 2030), monetize remaining allowances, or transfer them to the Modernisation Fund, created under the EU ETS in 2018.
Industry: Free allocation based on sector-specific performance benchmarks, which reflect an average emissions intensity per unit of product of the most efficient 10% of installations in each sector. The European Commission established 54 benchmarks in 2011, using 2007 and 2008 activity data and literature sources (when data was missing). Sectors deemed at risk of carbon leakage received free allocation at 100% of the relevant benchmark. Sub-sectors deemed not at risk of carbon leakage had free allocation reduced gradually from 80% of the respective benchmark in 2013 to 30% by 2020.
The carbon leakage risk was assessed against emissions intensity and trade exposure:
- direct and indirect cost increase >30%; or
- non-EU trade intensity >30%; or
- direct and indirect cost increase >5% and trade intensity >10%.
Cost intensity was determined by the formula:
[Carbon price × (direct emissions × auctioning factor + electricity consumption × electricity emission factor)]/ gross value added
Trade intensity was determined by the formula:
(imports + exports)/(imports + production)
New Entrants’ Reserve (NER): 5% of the cap for Phase 3 was set aside to assist new installations or to cover installations whose capacity significantly increased since their free allocation had been determined. 300 million allowances from the reserve were allocated to the NER300, a large-scale funding program for innovative low-carbon energy demonstration projects.
Aviation: 15% of allowances were auctioned and 82% were allocated to aircraft operators for free. The remaining 3% constituted a special reserve for new entrants and fast-growing airlines. The number of allowances put into circulation for the aviation sectors was reduced to reflect the temporary limitation of the scope of the EU ETS to flights within the EEA.
PHASE FOUR:
Auctioning: the main method of distributing allowances, accounting for up to 57% of the cap. Of the share of allowances to be auctioned, 90% are distributed to Member States based on their share of verified emissions, with 10% distributed among the lower-income Member States under the solidarity provision.
Free allocation: A significant volume of allowances is allocated for free to address the risk of carbon leakage, based on sectors-specific performance benchmarks. Benchmark values are updated twice in Phase 4 to reflect technological progress in different sectors. In 2021, the European Commission updated benchmark values for the first time.* They apply in 2021 to 2025. The values are adjusted for technological progress on a yearly basis. An annual reduction rate is determined for each benchmark. For the steel sector, which faces high abatement costs and leakage risks, a fixed reduction rate applies.
The uniform cross-sectoral correction factor for the adjustment of free allocation is 1 for 2021 to 2025.
The Phase 4 cap includes a buffer of more than 450 million allowances, initially earmarked for auctioning, which can be made available if the initial free allocation volume is fully absorbed (thereby avoiding the need to apply the cross-sectoral correction factor).
Free allocation for 2026 to 2030 will become conditional on the implementation of energy efficiency measures (based on audits or energy management systems) and of carbon neutrality plans for the worst performing installations, in order to incentivize decarbonization.
Free allocation to specific sectors will be gradually phased out from 2026 to 2034, in parallel to the phase-in of EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) for third-country imports. Those sectors are - iron and steel, cement, aluminum, fertilizers and hydrogen. The CBAM will also apply to electricity imports. The transitional, data collection phase of CBAM started on 1 October 2023, with only reporting but no charges due.
Power Sector: Auctioning, with an optional transitional free allocation for the modernization and diversification of electricity generation in ten lower-income Member States. Three of the eligible Member States decided to continue using this option in Phase 4. It can be used until the end of 2024. After this time, any leftover allowances will be either added to a Member State’s share of allowances to be auctioned or its share of the Modernisation Fund.
Industry: Updated benchmark values that apply for 2021 to 2025 were calculated based on activity data for installations over 2016 to 2017, supplied by Member States.
The updated values were compared to the original benchmarks to determine the reductions to be applied over the 15-year period between 2007/08 and 2022/23. Benchmarks could be reduced between 3% and 24% over this period. In total, 31 out of 54 benchmarks have been reduced by the maximum rate of 24%.
There are revised rules covering adjustments to free allocation when an installation makes a significant change to its production. These rules apply from Phase 4. The threshold for adjustments is a 15% increase or decrease in production. Adjustments to free allocation are issued based on yearly production data reports that operators submit to national competent authorities. Adjustments to the level of free allocation are made from the New Entrants’ Reserve.
Carbon leakage rules: The third carbon leakage list, adopted in February 2019, applies for 2021 to 2030. The list includes a reduced number of sectors classified at risk of carbon leakage. Free allocation for other sectors will be discontinued by 2030 (except for district heating).
Carbon leakage is assessed against a composite indicator of trade intensity and emissions intensity, according to the following criteria:
Trade intensity x emissions intensity > 0.2
Trade intensity x emissions intensity > 0.15 but < 0.2; qualitative assessment will follow based on abatement potential, market characteristics, and profit margins.
Emissions intensity is determined by:
[direct emissions + (electricity consumption x electricity emission factor)]/ gross value added
Trade exposure is determined by:
(imports + exports)/(imports + production)
New Entrants’ Reserve (NER): The initial volume of the NER at the start of Phase 4 amounted to 331.3 million allowances. This included unallocated allowances from Phase 3 and 200 million allowances from the MSR.
Aviation: Phase 3 breakdown applied until 2023. Free allocation to aviation will be phased out gradually – reduced to 75% in 2024, 50% in 2025 and eventually to 0% from 2026 onward.
* Revised benchmark values for free allocation of emission allowances for 2021-2025.
EUR 184 billion* (USD 206 billion) since 2013
EUR 43.6 billion** (USD 47.1 billion) in 2023
* Includes revenues from Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and the UK, as well as of the Innovation and Modernisation Funds funded by the EU ETS.
** Includes revenues from Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Northern Ireland, as well as of the Innovation and Modernisation Funds funded by the EU ETS.
Revenue from the auctioning of allowances under the EU ETS accrues primarily to Member States’ budgets. Of the revenues generated until mid-2023, Member States were instructed to use at least 50% for climate- and energy-related purposes. Member States are required to use all revenues generated from that point onward to support climate and energy objectives.
Member States can use their EU ETS revenues to finance State aid to certain electricity-intensive industries to compensate for the additional electricity costs they face as a result of the EU ETS.They do so under State aid schemes that are approved by the European Commission. Every year, they must publish the total compensation amounts paid out, including a breakdown per recipient sector and subsector. The overall spending under a scheme should not exceed 25% of a Member State’s ETS revenue.
Member States report annually to the European Commission on how they spent their auction revenues. To date, Member States have reported having spent ~76% of EU ETS revenues on climate- and energy-related purposes, both domestic and international.
A share of EU ETS allowances is auctioned to supply the Innovation and Modernisation Funds – two funds established for Phase 4 to support decarbonization in the covered sectors.
Innovation Fund: Supports the commercial demonstration of innovative low-carbon technologies and industrial solutions to decarbonize Europe’s energy-intensive industries, as well as the development of renewable energy, energy storage and carbon capture use and storage.
Modernisation Fund: Supports investments in lower-income Member States aimed at modernizing energy systems, improving energy efficiency, and supporting a socially just transition to climate neutrality. It is one of the solidarity mechanisms of the EU ETS, which addresses Member States’ different starting points in the decarbonization challenge.
Flexibility & Linking
Banking is allowed (since 2008).
Borrowing is not allowed.
PHASE ONE: The use of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) credits was allowed without limitation. In practice, no offset credits were used in Phase 1
PHASE TWO:
The use of offset credits was allowed. 1,058 MtCO2e of international credits were used.
Qualitative limits: Most categories of CDM/JI credits were allowed, except for LULUCF and nuclear power. Strict requirements applied for large hydro projects exceeding 20 MW.
Quantitative limits: In Phase 2, operators were allowed to use JI and CDM credits up to a certain percentage limit determined in the respective country’s National Allocation Plan. Unused entitlements were transferred to Phase 3.
PHASE THREE:
The use of offset credits was allowed with strict limitations.
Qualitative limits: Newly generated international credits (post-2012) had to originate from projects in least developed countries. Credits from CDM and JI projects from other countries were eligible only if registered and implemented before the end of 2012. Projects from industrial gas credits (projects involving the destruction of HFC-23 and N2O) were excluded regardless of the host country. Credits issued for emission reductions that occurred in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol were no longer accepted after March 2015.
Quantitative limits: The total use of credits for Phase 2 and Phase 3 was capped at 50% of the overall reduction under the EU ETS in that period (~1.6 Gt CO2e).
PHASE FOUR:
The use of offset credits is not allowed.
The EU ETS and the Swiss ETS have been linked since 2020. This means that allowances issued in one system can be surrendered for emissions generated in either of the two systems. The “Linking Agreement” between the EU and Switzerland sets out the conditions and requirements under which the two systems are linked. A direct link was created between the registries of both systems. It allows regulated entities to transfer allowances from an account in one system to an account in the other system.
Compliance
One calendar year.
A harmonized framework of monitoring, reporting, verification and accreditation requirements underpins the EU ETS functioning. Every year, Member States report on implementation of this framework:
- “Monitoring and Reporting Regulation (2018/2066)”
- “Accreditation and Verification Regulation (2018/2067)”
- “Monitoring and Reporting Regulation for maritime transport (2015/757)”
MONITORING: Each installation, aircraft operator and maritime transport operator is required to have an emission monitoring plan, approved by a national competent authority. The deadline for submitting an emissions report is the end of March (for the preceding calendar year).
REPORTING: Emission reports submitted annually using templates.
VERIFICATION: Emission reports are verified by independent accredited verifiers before the end of March of the following year. Once verified, operators must surrender the equivalent number of allowances by the end of September.
In addition to the detail set out here, a dedicated monitoring, reporting and verification framework for non-CO2 aviation effects is due to start from January 2025.
Regulated entities must pay an excess emissions penalty of EUR 100 (USD 108.13), adjusted for inflation, for each tCO2 emitted for which no allowance has been surrendered, in addition to buying and surrendering the equivalent number of allowances. The name of the non-compliant operator is also made public. Member States may enforce different penalties for other forms of non-compliance.
Market Regulation
MARKET PARTICIPATION: Compliance entities and non-compliance entities.
MARKET TYPES:
Primary: Uniform price auctions with single rounds and sealed bids, conducted daily by EEX. Germany has opted out of the common auctioning platform, instead running national auctions through the EEX. Poland has also opted out but continues to participate on the common auction platform at the EEX until further notice.
Secondary: Spot, futures, options, and forward contracts are traded on the secondary markets, both on exchange and over the counter. Besides the EEX, futures are traded on ICE, ENDEX and Nasdaq.
LEGAL STATUS OF ALLOWANCES:
Classified as financial instruments. The associated derivatives can hence be traded on secondary markets.
BACKLOADING: As a short-term measure implemented in Phase 3 to address a growing surplus of allowances in the EU ETS. Auctioning of 900 million allowances was postponed from the period spanning 2014 to 2016 until 2019 and 2020. The allowances were eventually placed in the Market Stability Reserve.
MARKET STABILITY RESERVE (MSR): The MSR was created in 2015 as a long-term measure to address a growing surplus of allowances in the EU ETS. It adjusts auction volumes according to pre-defined thresholds of the total number of allowances in circulation (TNAC), fostering balance in the EU carbon market and resilience to demand shocks. The MSRstarted operating in 2019.
Triggers: The Commission publishes the TNAC communication every year.
- If the TNAC is above 1,096 million, 24% of its volume is withdrawn from future auctions and placed into the MSR over a period of 12 months.
- If the TNAC is between 833 and 1,096 million, to mitigate threshold effects a smaller share of allowances is deducted from auction volumes and placed in the MSR.
- If the TNAC is less than 400 million allowances, 100 million allowances are released from the MSR and auctioned.
CANCELLATIONS: From 2023, allowances in the MSR above a certain threshold are cancelled annually. In 2023, the applicable threshold was the 2022 auction volume. From 2024, the applicable threshold is fixed at 400 million.
At the end of December 2022, the MSR contained over 3 billion allowances. The 2022 auction volume amounted to 486 million allowances. This led to a cancellation of 2,515 million allowances in January 2023.
Swiss ETS allowance supply is not considered in the TNAC, and Swiss auction quotas are not affected by the MSR.
Other Information
European Commission: Responsible for establishing the regulatory framework of the EU ETS and centralized administration of the system, e.g., the EU registry.
Competent authorities of all EU Member States as well as Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway: implementation, e.g., verifying compliance with MRV and surrender obligations.
The European Commission publishes annual reports on the functioning of the European carbon market (2023 report on the EU ETS functioning in 2022).
The ETS Directive stipulates that the system is kept under review in light of the implementation of the Paris Agreement and the development of carbon markets in other major economies. Three major EU ETS reviews — before Phase 3, before Phase 4, and in the context of increasing the EU 2030 climate target — have been conducted to date.
By the end July 2026, the European Commission will assess:
- how negative emissions could be accounted for and covered under the EU ETS,
- the feasibility of lowering the 20 MW total rated thermal input thresholds for the activities under the EU ETS,
- effective accounting and avoidance of double counting of CCU products under the EU ETS,
- the feasibility of including municipal waste incineration under the EU ETS,
- the functioning of the EU ETS for aviation, including the functioning of CORSIA.
By the end of December 2027, the Commission will assess the possibility of the scope of the EU ETS to include non-CO2 aviation emissions.
Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a scheme for GHG emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC.
Decision concerning the establishment and operation of a market stability reserve for the Union GHG emission trading scheme and amending Directive 2003/87/EC (6 October 2015).
Consolidated Auctioning Regulation: Commission Delegated Regulation 2023/2830 supplementing Directive 2003/87/EC
All other legislation and documentation can be found here.
Korea Emissions Trading Scheme
General Information
The Korea Emissions Trading Scheme (K-ETS) launched in 2015 as East Asia’s first nationwide, mandatory ETS. It covers around 89% of South Korea’s national GHG emissions and will help the country in its objective to become carbon neutral by 2050, a target embedded in the “Carbon Neutral Framework Act” of 2021.
The K-ETS covers 804 of the country’s largest emitters in the power, industrial, buildings, waste, transport, domestic aviation, and domestic maritime transportation sectors. Covered entities must surrender allowances for all their covered emissions, and allocation is done via auctions or free distribution. At least 10% of allowances must be auctioned. Free allocation is provided for EITE sectors based on production cost and trade intensity benchmarks. Since 2021, domestic financial intermediaries and other third parties have been able to participate in exchange.
The K-ETS was established by the “Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth” (2010). It was preceded by a mandatory Target Management System (TMS), launched in 2012, following a two-year pilot phase. The TMS facilitated the collection of verified emissions data and training in the MRV process, and still applies to smaller entities not covered by the K-ETS.
In September 2023, as part of a larger reform process, the government released new rules to increase liquidity in the K-ETS, focusing on facilitating market participation and banking. These include:
- Increasing incentives to reduce emissions, facilitate low-carbon investment.
- Mitigating price volatility.
- Revising guidelines for verifying offset credits to reduce the burden on businesses and strengthen MRV.
- Raising holding limits of Korean Allowance Units (KAUs) for third parties (three million to six million tonnes for market makers (‘see Market Design’ section) and 500,000 to one million tonnes for securities companies).
- Aligning the compliance cycle so both compliance deadline and banking/borrowing applications fall in August.
From 2024:
- Restrictions on the carryover of unused allowances will be relaxed, to three times the net sales (total allowances sold minus total allowances bought) and the conversion period of offset credits prolonged from two to five years.
- The government will encourage the launch of carbon price-linked financial products and introduce futures markets by 2025.
- Consignment trading will be introduced to the market. The ETS will be opened up to more financial institutions and, from 2025, to individuals.
- Auction volume will be adjusted annually if necessary. In 2024, the monthly auctioned volume will depend on the previous month’s auction results:
a) if bid ratio is less than 100%, the next month’s auction volume will be determined by the current month’s winning quantity.
b) if the bid ratio is 100% or more, the next month’s auction volume will be determined by the current month’s auctioned volume or higher, whichever the government decides
Longer term changes will be implemented along with the next “ETS Basic Plan” –which will be finalized by December 2024, a year earlier than planned – for Phase 4, which will begin in 2026. These changes include developing a roadmap to better align the cap with the country’s Carbon Neutral Framework Act and updated NDC as well as plans to increase the share of auctioning and introduce the Korean Market Stabilization Reserve.
Emissions & Targets
676.6 MtCO2e (2021)
By 2030: At least a 35% reduction below 2018 emissions (Carbon Neutral Framework Act); 40% reduction below 2018 levels (updated NDC)
By 2050: Carbon neutrality (Carbon Neutral Framework Act)
Updated prices available here
Size & Phases
PHASE ONE: Three years (2015 to 2017)
PHASE TWO: Three years (2018 to 2020)
PHASE THREE: Five years (2021 to 2025)
A cap limits the total emissions allowed in the system.
PHASE ONE: 1,689.2 MtCO2e, including a reserve of 89.4 MtCO2e for early action and new entrants. 84.5% of the reserve was used within the phase. 14.3 million allowances were set aside in a reserve for market stabilization (see ‘Market Stability Provisions’ section), bringing the total number of allowances in Phase 1 to 1,704.2 million.
Annual Caps in Phase One:
2015: 540.1 MtCO2e
2016: 560.7 MtCO2e
2017: 585.5 MtCO2e
PHASE TWO: 1,777 MtCO2e, including 134 million for new entrants and other purposes. 14 million allowances were set aside for market stabilization and 5 million for the market makers (see ‘Market Design’ section) bringing the total amount of allowances to 1,796.1 million in Phase 2.
Annual Caps in Phase Two:
2018: 593.5 MtCO2e
2019: 563.2 MtCO2e
2020: 562.5 MtCO2e
The higher caps in Phase 2 reflected the expansion of the sectoral scope of the K-ETS (see ‘Sectors and Thresholds’ section).
PHASE THREE: 3,048.3MtCO2e. This corresponds to an average annual cap of 610 MtCO2e, including reserves. Annual caps appear higher in Phase 3 due to the expansion in scope, but reflect a 4.7% decrease in emissions compared to the 2017 to 2019 baseline. In addition, 14 million allowances are set aside for market stability purposes and 20 million for market makers, bringing the total amount of allowances in Phase 3 to 3,082.3 million.
Annual Caps in Phase Three (excluding reserves):
2021: 589.3 MtCO2e
2022: 589.3 MtCO2e
2023: 589.3 MtCO2e
2024: 567.1 MtCO2e
2025: 567.1 MtCO2e
Plans are currently underway to develop a roadmap to better align the cap with the Republic of Korea’s updated NDC.
PHASE ONE: 23 sub-sectors from the following five sectors: heat and power, industry, buildings, waste, and transportation (domestic aviation).
PHASE TWO: According to the Phase 2 Allocation Plan, the public and waste sectors were disaggregated such that the K-ETS covered the following six sectors: heat and power, industry, buildings, transportation, waste, and the public sector. These were divided into 62 sub-sectors.
PHASE THREE: Coverage within the transport sector was widened to include freight, rail, passenger, and maritime shipping. Construction industries have also been brought into the system’s scope. This increased the number of sub-sectors to 69.
INCLUSION THRESHOLDS: Companies emitting more than 125,000 tCO2 per year, and facilities with emissions in excess of 25,000 tCO2 per year.
The scheme covers both direct emissions and indirect emissions from electricity consumption. The same inclusion thresholds apply.
Point source (power, industry, buildings, transport, domestic aviation, domestic maritime, waste, public/other); downstream (buildings).
804 (2023)
Allowance Allocation & Revenue
PHASE ONE:
Free Allocation: 100% of total allowance supply. Most sectors received free allowances based on the average GHG emissions of the base years (2011 to 2013). Three sub-sectors (grey clinker, oil refining, and aviation) were allocated free allowances following benchmarks based on previous activity data from the base years.
PHASE TWO:
Free Allocation: 97% of free allocation to entities in sub-sectors subject to auctioning; 100% for EITE sectors. Toward the end of Phase 2, the share of sector-specific benchmarking reached 50% of total primary allocation and was expanded to a total of seven sub-sectors: grey clinker, oil refining, domestic aviation, with the addition of waste, industrial parks, electricity generation, and district heating/cooling.
EITE sectors received 100% of their allowances for free if they met one of the following three criteria:
• Additional Production Cost of >5% and Trade Intensity of >10%; or
• Additional Production Cost of >30%; or
• Trade Intensity of >30%.
Auctioning: Regular auctions began in 2019. Participation in auctions is subject to some limitations. Only companies that do not receive all their allowances for free are eligible to bid, with a list of eligible bidders published by the Ministry of Environment. Bidders can purchase 15-30% of the allowances on offer. The auctions are subject to a minimum price.
• Auction share: 3% of allocation to entities in 26 eligible sub-sectors, including entities from the electricity, domestic aviation, wooden products, and metal foundry sectors.
• Auction volume: 7.95 million allowances (2019) and 9.3 million (2020).
PHASE THREE:
Free Allocation: Less than 90% of free allocation to entities in sub-sectors that are subject to auctioning; 100% for EITE sectors. The share of sector-specific benchmarking is to reach 60% and has been expanded to a total of 12 sub-sectors: grey clinker, oil refining, domestic aviation, waste, industrial parks, electricity generation, and district heating/cooling, with the addition of steel, petrochemicals, buildings, paper, and wood processing. EITE sectors receive 100% free allocation if they meet the following criteria:
Production cost x Trade Intensity ≥ 0.2%
Allocation is calculated using the following formulas:
• Benchmark allocation: Benchmark value (tCO2e/t) x historical activity level (t) x correction factor x carbon leakage factor
• Grandparenting allocation: Average GHG emissions of base year x correction factor x carbon leakage factor
The carbon leakage factor is 1.0 for sectors exposed to significant risk; for non-EITE sectors, it is 0.9.
A tightening of benchmarks to align the K-ETS with long-term climate targets is under discussion.
Auctioning: Bidders can purchase a maximum of 15% of the allowances on offer. The government is expected to increase the share of auctioned allowances in the coming years.
• Auction share: At least 10% of allocation to entities in sub-sectors subject to auctioning. Entities from 41 sub-sectors, excluding EITE sectors, can participate in auctions.
• Auction volume: 20.46 million allowances (2021), 23.24 million allowances (2022), and ~19 million allowances (2023) which represents ~3% of the 589.3 MtCO2e 2023 cap (excluding reserves).
Since the beginning of the program: KRW 1,092.6 billion (USD 845.2 million)
In 2022: KRW 317.1 billion (USD 245.4 million)
Revenues from auctioning go into the Climate Response Fund, which supports emissions mitigation infrastructure, low-carbon innovation, and technology development for small- and mid-sized companies covered by the K-ETS.
Flexibility & Linking
Banking is allowed with restrictions across and within phases.
Borrowing is allowed within a single trading phase.
PHASE ONE: Borrowing was limited to 20% of an entity’s obligation.
PHASE TWO: From Phase 2 to Phase 3, banking was initially limited to the higher of two limits: the net annual number of allowances sold by the entity in Phase 2; or company- and facility-specific limits of 250,000 KAUs and 5,000 KAUs, respectively. Borrowing was limited to 15% of an entity’s obligation in 2018.
Rules on banking and borrowing were adjusted in 2019. The borrowing limit was set by each entity’s past borrowing activity, according to the following formula: Compliance obligation of the entity x [Borrowing limit of previous year – (“borrowing ratio” in previous year x 50%)]/entity’s emission volume.
The banking limit for the transition between Phase 2 and Phase 3 has been calculated as follows:
- For allowances from the 2018 vintage (KAU18), entities can bank either three times the net sales (total allowances sold minus total allowances bought) or 75,000 allowances for companies emitting >125,000 tCO2e (or 15,000 allowances for companies emitting >25,000 tCO2e) — whichever is higher;
- For KAU19s, the amounts above are reduced by 1/3, i.e., two times the net selling amount or 50,000 for large entities (10,000 for smaller entities) allowances, whichever is higher;
- For KAU20s, the amount represents a 2/3 reduction compared to the KAU18 rule.
PHASE THREE: In the first trading year, entities could borrow up to 15% of their compliance obligation. From the second to fourth trading years, the same borrowing formula as for 2019 applies.
Banking in Phase 3:
- In the first and second compliance years (2021 and 2022), entities could bank up to double their net number of KAUs and offset credits (KCUs) sold on the secondary market (excluding swaps and auctions).
- In the third and fourth compliance years (2023 and 2024), entities’ banking limits are equal to their net number of allowances (total allowances sold minus total allowances bought) and offset credits sold.
Phase 3 allowances and offset credits can only be carried over to the first compliance year of Phase 4 (2026 to 2030). The banking limit in the fifth compliance year (2025) also follows the “three times of net sales” rule.
Domestic offset credits, i.e., Korean Offset Credits (KOCs) were allowed in Phase 1. KOCs and international credits (subject to qualitative criteria) have been allowed since Phase 2. Both domestic and international credits must be converted to KCUs to be used for compliance.
PHASE ONE:
Qualitative Limit: The use only of domestic offset credits from external reduction activities implemented by non-ETS entities — and that met international standards — was allowed. Domestic CDM credits (CERs) and KOCs were allowed. Eligible activities included those eligible under the CDM plus carbon capture and storage, and had to have been implemented after mid-April 2010.
Quantitative Limit: Up to 10% of each entity’s compliance obligation.
PHASE TWO:
Qualitative Limit: In Phase 2, the use of CERs generated from June 2016 from international CDM projects developed by Korean companies was allowed if:
- At least 20% of the ownership rights, operating rights, or the voting stocks were owned by a Korean company; or
- A Korean company supplied the low-carbon technology worth at least 20% of the total project cost.
Quantitative Limit: Up to 10% of each entity’s compliance obligation (of which up to 5% can be international offset credits).
PHASE THREE:
Qualitative limit: The use of offset credits is allowed according to the same qualitative criteria outlined for Phase 2. However, limitations apply to the issuance and conversion of credits:
- GHG reduction projects (according to reduction period coverage) to KOC conversion: 1) April 2010 to December 2020: within two years (2021 to 2022); 2) January 2021 onwards: within two years (2022 to 2023).
- KOC to KCU conversion: within five years of KOC issuance.
Quantitative limit: Up to 5% of each entity’s compliance obligation, regardless of type.
As of December 2023, there were 292 registered methodologies (211 for CDM and 81 for domestic offset credits). The government aims to use 37.5 Mt of international credits to reach the 2030 NDC.
The K-ETS is not linked with any other system.
Compliance
One year. Entities must surrender allowances for the previous emissions year by the end of August.
REPORTING: Annual reporting of emissions from the previous year must be submitted by the end of March.
VERIFICATION: Emissions must be verified by a third-party verifier.
FRAMEWORK: Emission reports are reviewed and certified by the Certification Committee of the Ministry of Environment by the end of May.
Liable entities are required to revise and resubmit emission reports which are found to be incorrect.
The penalty shall not exceed either three times the average market price of allowances of the given compliance year or KRW 100,000 (USD 76.58) per tonne.
Market Regulation
MARKET PARTICIPATION: Compliance entities. Limited participation for non-compliance entities. Initially limited to compliance entities, the “market maker” system was introduced in Phase 2 to improve market liquidity. Market makers are third-party participants in the K-ETS who can draw on a separate government-held reserve of allowances (at the time five million), set aside at the time of original allocation, to increase liquidity in the market through daily allowance trade. Three new financial firms were appointed in 2021, in addition to the two market makers that had been appointed in 2019. In December 2022, the government announced a further two market makers to begin operating from 2023. Eight market makers were appointed later in 2023.
From Phase 3, as per the 2012 “Emissions Trading Act” and the Presidential Decree, non-compliance entities in the form of other non-market maker domestic financial intermediaries can participate in the secondary market and trade allowances on the Korea Exchange (KRX). In line with this, 20 financial intermediaries were approved for participation in the carbon market from 2021 (the total as of December 2023 is 21 financial intermediaries). Though, they initially could only hold up to 200,000 allowances each, to avoid excessive market share, this number was increased to 500,000 in December 2022, and again to one million in 2023.
MARKET TYPES:
Primary: Monthly auctions have been held since 2019. Sectors that receive 100% free allocation are not allowed to participate in auctions. Auctions take place via the KRX.
Secondary: The K-ETS has traditionally had a high share of over-the-counter transactions. Additionally, the KRX manages the platform where the spot secondary market transactions take place. Allowances, KCUs and KOCs are traded on the exchange for different vintage years. Consignment trading is set to be introduced in 2024.
LEGAL STATUS OF ALLOWANCES: The legal status of KAUs is not explicitly referenced in the 2012 Emissions Trading Act or the Presidential Decree. However, KAUs are not regulated under financial market law. For the purpose of preventing market price manipulation, unfair trade and to regulate exchange of information, Article 22, paragraph 3 of the Act specifies that certain provisions of “Capital Market and Financial Investment Business Act” apply.
TRIGGERS: An Allocation Committee is in place to implement market stabilization measures if:
- the market allowance price of six consecutive months is at least three times higher than the average price of the two previous years;
- the market allowance price of the last month is at least double the average price of the two previous years and the average trading volume of the last month is at least twice the volume of the same month of the two previous years;
- the average market allowance price of a given month is lower than 60% of the average price of the two previous years; or
- it is difficult to trade allowances due to an imbalance of supply or demand.
INSTRUMENTS: Stabilization measures include:
- additional auctioning of up to 25% of allowances from the market stabilization reserve, which contains 14.3 million allowances;
- the establishment of a limit to the number of allowances entities can hold: minimum (70%) or maximum (150%) of the allowances of the compliance year;
- an increase or decrease of the borrowing limit;
- an increase or decrease of the offset limit; and
- temporary establishment of a price ceiling or price floor.
In 2018, the Allocation Committee put up for auction an additional 5.5 million allowances from the stability reserve to ease the market in the lead-up to the 2017 compliance deadline; 4.7 million of these were sold. No more such cases have occurred since.
In 2021, the Allocation Committee set a price floor of KRW 12,900 (USD 9.98) per tonne in April and KRW 9,450 (USD 7.31) per tonne in June.
In 2023, the government set two temporary price floors. The measure’s trigger price remained at an average of KRW 12,088 (USD 9.26), calculated as 60% of the average price from the preceding two years. The first price floor of KRW 7,020 (USD 5.38) was established in July and the last price floor of KRW 7,750 (USD 5.94) was set in November and lifted in early December (when prices were maintained at KRW 8,520 (UDS 6.53) for five consecutive days).
As of the start of 2024, there are eight K-ETS market makers. These institutions can draw on a government-held reserve of 20 million allowances in a bid to increase liquidity in the market.
Other Information
Ministry of Environment: Holds overall responsibility for the K-ETS.
Ministry of Economy and Finance: Chairs the Allocation Committee; briefly held overall responsibility for the K-ETS between June 2016 and January 2018.
Korea Exchange (KRX): Trading and auctioning platform.
Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Research Center (GIR): Responsible for the registry and technical implementation.
International Carbon Reduction Council: Ministry-level body that promotes GHG reduction projects.
The GIR regularly releases summary (evaluation) reports that include key emissions statistics, market performance indicators, and survey results from covered entities.
Enforcement Decree of the Act on the Allocation and Trading of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allowances
Act on the Allocation and Trading of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allowances
First Basic Plan for 2015-2024
Second Basic Plan for 2017-2026
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allocation and Trade Act (amended in June 2020)