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China National ETS
CF4 and C2F6 (only for aluminum smelter sector)
General Information
China’s National Carbon Market began operating in 2021, with the objective of contributing to the effective control and gradual reduction of CO2 emissions. China’s National Carbon Market is the world’s largest in terms of covered emissions, estimated to cover around 8 billion tCO2 – or more than 60% of the country’s CO2 emissions.
The China National Carbon Market regulates more than 3,300 companies from the power, steel, cement, and aluminum smelter sectors with annual emissions in excess of 26,000 tCO2e. Covered entities must surrender allowances for all their covered emissions. The allowances in the China National Carbon Market are 100% freely allocated using an output-based approach. Compliance obligations are currently limited and vary between different types of facilities. The system’s coverage will expand to other sectors over time.
In January 2024, China relaunched its national GHG voluntary emission reduction trading market, the Chinese Certified Emissions Reduction scheme (CCER). This came after six years of suspension, during which time it was reformed. This could contribute to the implementation of an offsetting scheme in the domestic ETS (see ‘Offset Credits’ section).
The National Carbon Market builds on the successful experience of regional carbon markets implemented in eight regions. These pilots continue to operate in parallel with the National Carbon Market, covering sectors and entities not included in the national system.
In December 2024, 99.98% of the covered entities in the National Carbon Market surrendered their compliance units for the 2023 compliance year.
In August 2025, China’s highest authorities – the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council – issued the “Opinions on Advancing Green and Low-Carbon Transformation and Strengthening the Development of the National Carbon Market”. This policy sets out a roadmap for transitioning from an intensity-based cap to an absolute cap and expanding the National Carbon Market’s coverage.
In November, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (MEE) published the allocation plan for the steel, cement, and aluminum smelter sectors for 2024 and 2025. According to the plan, all covered entities in these three sectors will receive free allowances equivalent to their verified emissions in the 2024 compliance year. In 2025, free allocation will be based on a more differentiated, performance-based approach (See ‘Allowance Allocation’ section).
In November, China submitted its 2035 NDC, committing to reduce economy-wide GHG emissions by 7-10 % from peak levels by 2035. It is the first time China has committed to reducing its absolute GHG emissions. The new NDC also aims to establish a more effective and dynamic National Carbon Market. It envisages expanding the coverage and introducing auctions in the National Carbon Market.
Emissions & Targets
14,314 MtCO2e (2021)
Before 2030: Peak CO2 emissions; reduction of CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by over 65% from 2005 levels (“‘1+N’ policy framework”; NDC 2.0)
By 2035: Reduce economy-wide GHG emissions by 7-10 % from peak levels (NDC 3.0)
Before 2060: Carbon neutrality (‘1+N’ policy framework; NDC 2.0)
Average secondary market price (2025): CNY 70.78 (USD 9.85)
Size & Phases
CF4 and C2F6 (only for aluminum smelter sector)
There are currently no specific phases for the Chinese national ETS.
The cap is the sum of the bottom-up total allowance allocation to all individual covered entities. It is adjusted according to the actual production levels.
The National Carbon Market is estimated to have had an annual cap of ~4,500 MtCO2 in 2019 and 2020, ~5,100 MtCO2 in 2021 and 2022, ~5,200 MtCO2 in 2023 and ~8,000 MtCO2 in 2024.
Power (including combined heat and power, as well as captive power plants of other sectors), steel, cement, and aluminium smelter.
Compliance obligations are currently limited (see ‘Allowance Allocation’ section).
The scope is expected to be gradually expanded to cover other sectors: petrochemicals, chemicals, flat glass, copper smelter, paper, and aviation. Entities in these sectors have MRV obligation since 2015.
INCLUSION THRESHOLDS:
For 2019 to 2020: Entities with annual emissions of 26,000 tCO2 or greater in any year from 2013 to 2019.
For 2021 to 2022: Entities with annual emissions of 26,000 tCO2 or more in any year from 2020 to 2021.
From 2023: Entities with annual emissions of 26,000 tCO2 or more in the previous year.
Point source
~3,300 (2024)
Allowance Allocation & Revenue
Allowances are distributed for free, using output-based benchmarking or output-based intensity method. The competent authorities update the allocation plans every year and the following information refers to the latest allocation plans.
FREE ALLOCATION (Power sector): Output-based benchmarking is used as the main allocation method, with four distinct benchmarks: conventional coal plants below 300 MW; conventional coal plants above 300 MW; unconventional coal; and natural gas.
A pre-allocation method is adopted for the annual allowance allocation. Allocation is then adjusted ex-post to reflect the actual production in the respective compliance year.
Entities received allowances at 70% of their verified emissions in the previous year. Allocation was subsequently adjusted to reflect actual generation in 2023 and 2024. A unit load (output) adjustment factor distributed more allowances for coal-fired entities operating at load rates below 65%.
According to the 2023 to 2024 allocation plan, compliance obligations are limited. Gas-fired plants only need to surrender allowances up to their level of free allocation as per the benchmarks. Coal-fired plants with free allowance below 80% of their verified emissions will have their allocation adjusted upwards to 80% of their verified emissions. This means that 20% remains the maximum shortfall, similar to the previous compliance periods.
FREE ALLOCATION (Steel, cement, and aluminum smelter sector): For the 2024 compliance year, covered entities will receive free allowances equal to their verified emissions.
For the 2025 compliance year, the allocation method is intensity-based, designed to encourage efficiency improvements without immediately limiting overall emissions output or resulting in very large surpluses or shortages of allowances. For covered entities whose emissions intensity falls within 20% above or below the sectoral balance value, their allocation equals their verified emissions multiplied by one minus 15% of their deviation. For covered entities/facilities with deviations exceeding 20% in either direction, the adjustment is capped at 3% of verified emissions.
Production of certain products in the cement sector will receive annual allowances equal to their verified actual carbon emissions.
No pre-allocation for the 2024 compliance year took place. For the 2025 compliance year, entities received pre-allocation at 70% of their 2024 verified emissions. The final allocation was subsequently adjusted after the verification of emissions in 2025 to reflect actual output.
AUCTIONING: Allocation currently takes place through free allocation, but the Interim Regulations clarify that auctioning is to be introduced and gradually expanded. There is currently no timeline for this.
There is currently no arrangement for the use of revenues generated by the scheme.
Flexibility & Linking
Borrowing was temporarily allowed in 2021 and 2022.
Banking was allowed with no limit in the first three compliance periods. Since 2024, covered entities in power sector are allowed to bank up to 10,000 tonnes plus 1.5 times their net sales over the period from 2019 to 2024. Covered entities in the steel, cement, and aluminum smelter sectors are allowed to bank up to 100,000 tonnes plus 1.5 times their net sales over the period from 2019 to 2024.
The use of offset credits is allowed.
QUANTITATIVE LIMITS: Covered entities can use CCERs generated from projects not covered by the National Carbon Market for up to 5% of their verified emissions.
QUALITATIVE LIMITS: There were no additional project or vintage restrictions.
In 2012, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) issued the “Interim Measures for the Management of Voluntary GHG Emissions Reduction Transactions”, which provided guidelines for the issuance of CCERs. The registration of CCER projects started in 2015, but the program was suspended in 2017 while regulations were reviewed. MEE launched the CCER system in 2024 with new methodologies, registry, verifiers, and exchange.
Only credits from projects registered in the new CCER program are eligible for offset use in China’s National Carbon Market after January 2025.
The National Center for Climate Change Strategy and International Cooperation (NCSC) operates the CCER registry. The Beijing Green Exchange is dedicated to CCER trading platforms.
The China national ETS is not linked with any other system.
ETS: Regional ETSs in Beijing, Chongqing, Fujian, Hubei, Guangdong, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Tianjin
Domestic crediting mechanism (national): CCER
Domestic crediting mechanisms: Local offset crediting mechanism in Beijing, Chongqing, Fujian, Hubei, Guangdong, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Tianjin
Compliance
Two calendar years from 2019 to 2022. One calendar year from 2023 onwards.
MEE publishes an ETS work plan to set the timeline for MRV work each year. MEE published the 2025 work plan in April 2025.
FRAMEWORK: MRV guidelines, supplementary data sheets, verification guidelines, and other guidance are available for the eight sub-sectors to be covered by the ETS. This MRV framework has evolved continuously since 2013 (see ‘Sectors and Thresholds’ section).
MONITORING: Covered entities are required to set up and follow monitor plans.
REPORTING: Covered entities must submit a monthly emissions report within 40 calendar days after the end of each month, including fuel consumption, low-level calorific value, carbon content of the fuel, and purchased electricity, output products, as well as other parameters. Covered entities must submit the annual emissions reports by the end of March next year.
VERIFICATION: Provincial-level ecological and environmental authorities are responsible for organizing the verification of GHG reports. They may commission technical service agencies to provide verification services. Verification of 2024 emissions from the power sector must be completed by the end of June 2025. Verification of the 2024 emissions from the cement, aluminum smelter and steel sectors should be completed before the end of August 2025. Verification of other key industries should be completed by the end of September 2025.
The Interim Regulations enhanced enforcement measures and penalties for different parties. Covered entities face a fine for not reporting or cheating in reporting, ranging from CNY 500,000 (USD 69,542) to ten times the illegal gains. Failures in compliance obligations result in fines ranging from five to ten times the market value of the gap, a significant increase from the previous maximum fine of CNY 30,000 (USD 4,173). For those who refuse to surrender allowances after receiving a warning, deductions from the following year’s allocation and potential production suspension are now in force.
Consultancy firms, third-party verifiers, and testing organizations involved in MRV data fraud may face penalties up to ten times the value of their illegal gains, as well as disqualification. Similar punishments also apply for market manipulation. The regulation rectifies the previous absence of penalties for misconduct by technical service providers and market participants.
Market participants involved in market manipulation behaviors may face penalties up to ten times their illegal gains, starting from CNY 500,000 (USD 69,542).
Market Regulation
MARKET PARTICIPATION: Compliance entities. The Interim Regulations indicate that other types of institutions or individuals may in the future also be allowed to participate in the market; however, there is no specific timeline for this.
MARKET TYPES:
Primary: Allowances are currently only distributed by free allocation. The Interim Regulations state the intention to introduce auctioning, though without a specific timeline.
Secondary: China Emission Allowances (CEA) can be traded on a dedicated trading platform managed by the Shanghai Environment and Energy Exchange. CEAs for the 2019 to 2020 period, CEAs for 2021, CEAs for 2022, and CEAs for 2023 are categorized as four different products on the exchange, and have similar prices.
Due to financial market regulations, other products (i.e., derivatives) are currently not allowed.
LEGAL STATUS OF ALLOWANCES: Allowances are not considered financial instruments. For financial accounting purposes, the Ministry of Finance published an interim policy that categorizes only purchased allowances, and not those received for free, as assets in financial statements.
In May 2021, the MEE announced the option of establishing a market-regulating and protection mechanism. This would enable the MEE to respond to abnormal fluctuations in trading prices, for instance through buy-back, auctioning, or adjusting the rules related to CCER use. The necessary triggers and specifics of this mechanism are yet to be defined.
EXCHANGE
Instrument type: Price-based instrument
Functioning: The Shanghai Environment and Energy Exchange implements a system of limits on price increases and decreases for trading over the exchange. For listed trading (the maximum volume for a single transaction does not exceed 100,000 tCO2e), this is 10% above or below the reference price (the closing price of the previous trading day). For block trading (minimum transaction volume of 100,000 tCO2e), this is 30% above or below the reference price. Only transactions within this price range can be successfully completed on the exchange. It also sets the maximum position limit for the different market participants: the sum of their annual allocated allowances plus 1 MtCO2 for compliance entities, 1 MtCO2 for institutional investors, and 50,000 tCO2 for natural persons.
Other Information
The China National Carbon Market has a multi-level governance structure involving three levels of government:
Ministry of Ecology and Environment (MEE): Acts as the national competent authority setting the rules and overseeing the system, jointly with other national regulators.
Provincial-level MEE subsidiaries: Oversee the implementation of the ETS, including identifying covered entities, organizing MRV, hiring verifiers, calculating allowance, managing provincial registry account, and oversee compliance.
Municipal-level authorities: Responsible for managing covered entities directly.
China Carbon Emissions Registration and Clearing Co., Ltd.: Responsible for operating the CEA registry and clearing platform.
Shanghai Environment and Energy Exchange: Operates the CEA trading platform.
National Center for Climate Change Strategy and International Cooperation (NCSC):
Operates the CCER registry.
The Beijing Green Exchange: Responsible for operating the CCER trading and clearing platform.
An evaluation framework is currently under development. The MEE has published annual ETS progress reports since 2024. According to the 2025 progress report, the carbon intensity in fossil-fuel power generation in 2024 decreased 10.8%, compared to the 2018 level.
The National Measures for the Administration of Carbon Emission Trading (trial) (2021)
Allocation Plan for the Power Sector (2023-2024)
Management Measures for voluntary Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Trading (Trial) (2023)
Updated Guidelines for GHG Monitoring and Reporting for the power sector (2023)
Updated Guidelines for GHG Monitoring and Reporting for industrial sectors (2023)
Interim Regulations on the Administration of Carbon Emission Trading (2024)
Guidelines for GHG Monitoring and Reporting for Cement, aluminum smelter and steel industries (2024 and 2025)
Work Plan for National Carbon Market covering steel, cement and aluminum smelter sectors (2025)
Allocation Plan for the Steel, Cement and Aluminum Smelter Sector (2024, 2025)
Opinions of General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council on Advancing Green and Low-Carbon Transition and Strengthening the Development of the National Carbon Market (2025)
Korea Emissions Trading System (K-ETS)
General Information
The Korea Emissions Trading System (K-ETS) launched in 2015 as East Asia’s first nationwide, mandatory ETS. It covered 77.75% of Korea's GHG emissions in 2023. The K-ETS aims to help the country in its objective to become carbon neutral by 2050, a target embedded in the 2021 “Carbon Neutral Framework Act”.
The K-ETS covers 813 of the country’s largest emitters in the power, industrial, buildings, waste, transport, domestic aviation, and maritime sectors (2025 compliance year). Covered entities must surrender allowances for all their covered emissions, and allocation is done via free distribution or auctions. By 2030, 50% of allowances in the power generation sector must be auctioned, with a gradual phase-in (2026: 15%, 2027: 20%, 2028: 30%, 2029: 40%, 2030: 50%). For the other sectors, 15% of allowances must be auctioned by 2030. Free allocation is provided for emissions-intensive, trade-exposed (EITE) sectors based on carbon intensity and trade intensity benchmarks. Since 2021, domestic financial intermediaries and other third parties have been able to participate in the exchange.
The K-ETS was established by the “Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth” (2010). It was preceded by a mandatory Target Management System (TMS), launched in 2012, following a two-year pilot phase. The TMS facilitated the collection of verified emissions data and training in the MRV process and still applies to smaller entities not covered by the K-ETS.
In November 2025, Korea approved the National Emission Allowance Allocation Plan for the fourth phase of the K-ETS, covering 2026 to 2030. It sets the total GHG emissions cap, introduces a quantity-based Market Stability Reserve (K-MSR), and increases the share of auctioned allowances.
The total cap for the period is set at 2.5 billion tCO2e. A new linear reduction factor will apply, differentiating between the power generation and the non-power generation sectors, marking a shift from the previous proportional roadmap method. Sectoral reduction targets are also included in the allocation plan. The electricity, transport, buildings and waste sectors are all set to reduce emissions by more than 50% by 2035 relative to 2018 levels, with the electricity sector targeting a 69% to 75% cut. The other sectors have a lower reduction target.
Allocation rules are streamlined into two broad categories: power generation and non-power generation sectors. The auctioning share for the power generation sector will be gradually increased to 50% by 2030. Sectors at risk of carbon leakage, such as steel, non-ferrous metals, petrochemicals, cement, and semiconductors, will continue to receive 100% free allocation. These sectors account for around 95% of industrial emissions. Other non-power sectors will face a 15% auction rate. Benchmark-based allocation will be expanded to include semiconductors, displays and non-ferrous metals, and to cover fuel use across all industries. The benchmarking coefficient will gradually be tightened, moving from the weighted average of the top 37% of performers to the top 20%.
In aggregate, approximately 2.1 billion allowances will be allocated for free and 260 million auctioned during the fourth phase. A further 85 million allowances will be placed in the K-MSR, and around 89 million in the new entrants’ reserve. Excluding the K-MSR and new entrants’ reserve, roughly 11% of total allowances will be auctioned. Additional revenues from increased auctioning are earmarked to support business decarbonization.
The quantity-based K-MSR forms part of the overall cap and will be further defined in the first half of 2026 following public consultation.
Emissions & Targets
707.2 MtCO2e (2023)
By 2030: 40% reduction below 2018 levels (NDC 2.0)
By 2035: 53%-61% reduction compared to 2018 levels (NDC 2035)
By 2050: Carbon neutrality (Carbon Neutral Framework Act)
Updated prices available here
Size & Phases
PHASE 1: Three years (2015 to 2017)
PHASE 2: Three years (2018 to 2020)
PHASE 3: Five years (2021 to 2025)
PHASE 4: Five years (2026 to 2030)
An absolute cap limits the total emissions allowed in the system and is fixed ex-ante.
PHASE 1: The cap was 1,689.2 MtCO2e, including a reserve of 89.4 MtCO2e for early action and new entrants. 84.5% of the reserve was used within the phase. 14.3 million allowances were set aside in a reserve for market stabilization (see ‘Market Stability Provisions’ section), bringing the total number of allowances in Phase 1 to 1,704.2 million.
Annual Caps in Phase 1:
2015: 540.1 MtCO2e
2016: 560.7 MtCO2e
2017: 585.5 MtCO2e
PHASE 2: The cap was 1,777 MtCO2e, including 134 million for new entrants and other purposes. 14 million allowances were set aside for market stabilization and 5 million for the market makers (see ‘Market Design’ section) bringing the total amount of allowances to 1,796.1 million in Phase 2.
Annual Caps in Phase 2:
2018: 593.5 MtCO2e
2019: 563.2 MtCO2e
2020: 562.5 MtCO2e
The higher caps in Phase 2 reflected the expansion of the sectoral scope of the K-ETS (see ‘Sectors and Thresholds’ section).
PHASE 3: The cap was 3,010.3 MtCO2e. This corresponds to an average annual cap of 602 MtCO2e, including reserves. Annual caps appear higher in Phase 3 due to the expansion in scope but reflect a 4.7% decrease in emissions compared to the 2017 to 2019 baseline. In addition, 14 million allowances were set aside for market stability purposes and 20 million for market makers, bringing the total amount of allowances in Phase 3 to 3,044.3 million.
Annual Caps in Phase 3 (excluding reserves):
2021: 584.5 MtCO2e
2022: 584.5 MtCO2e
2023: 584.5 MtCO2e
2024: 562.5 MtCO2e
2025: 562.5 MtCO2e
PHASE 4: The cap is 2,537.3 MtCO2e (including reserves).
PHASE 1: 23 sub-sectors from the following five sectors: heat and power, industry, buildings, waste, and transportation (domestic aviation).
PHASE 2: According to the Phase 2 Allocation Plan, the public and waste sectors were disaggregated such that the K-ETS covered the following six sectors: heat and power, industry, buildings, transportation, waste, and the public sector. These were divided into 62 sub-sectors.
PHASE 3: Coverage within the transport sector was widened to include freight, rail, passenger, and maritime shipping. Construction industries have also been brought into the system’s scope. This increased the number of sub-sectors to 69.
PHASE 4: The fourth allocation plan only differentiates the power generation sector and the non-power sector instead of the previous six sectors. The number of sub-sectors was increased from 69 to 73.
INCLUSION THRESHOLDS: Companies with total annual covered emissions of 125,000 tCO2e and if a company has at least one facility with over 25,000 tCO2e.
Covered emissions include direct but also indirect emissions from externally supplied electricity and heat. The same inclusion thresholds apply.
Point source (power, industry, buildings, transport, domestic aviation, waste, public/other); downstream (buildings)
813 entities (2025)
Allowance Allocation & Revenue
Volume of 2024 cap offered for auction: 18.75 million vintage 2024 Korean Allowance Units (KAUs) between July 2024 and June 2025
Proportion of 2025 cap offered for auction: 3.33%
PHASE 1:
Free Allocation: 100% of total allowance supply. Most sectors received free allowances based on the average GHG emissions of the base years (2011 to 2013). Three sub-sectors (grey clinker, oil refining, and aviation) were allocated free allowances following benchmarks based on previous activity data from the base years.
PHASE 2:
Free Allocation: 97% of allocation to entities in sub-sectors subject to auctioning; 100% for EITE sectors. Toward the end of Phase 2, the share of sector-specific benchmarking reached 50% of total primary allocation and was expanded to a total of seven sub-sectors: grey clinker, oil refining, domestic aviation, with the addition of waste, industrial parks, electricity generation, and district heating/cooling.
EITE sectors received 100% of their allowances for free if they met one of the following three criteria:
• Additional production cost of >5% and trade intensity of >10%; or
• Additional production cost of >30%; or
• Trade intensity of >30%.
Auctioning: Regular auctions began in 2019. Participation in auctions was subject to some limitations. Only companies that did not receive all their allowances for free were eligible to bid, with a list of eligible bidders published by the Ministry of Environment. Bidders could purchase 15-30% of the allowances on offer. The auctions were subject to a minimum price.
• Auction share: 3% of allocation to entities in 26 eligible sub-sectors, including entities from the electricity, domestic aviation, wooden products, and metal foundry sectors.
• Auction volume: 7.95 million allowances (2019) and 9.3 million (2020)
PHASE 3:
Free Allocation: Less than 90% of free allocation to entities in sub-sectors that were subject to auctioning; 100% for EITE sectors. The share of sector-specific benchmarking was to reach 60% and expanded to a total of 12 sub-sectors: grey clinker, oil refining, domestic aviation, waste, industrial parks, electricity generation, and district heating/cooling, with the addition of steel, petrochemicals, buildings, paper, and wood processing. EITE sectors received 100% free allocation if they met the following criteria:
Production cost x Trade intensity ≥ 0.2%
Allocation was calculated using the following formulas:
• Benchmark allocation: Benchmark value (tCO2e/t) x historical activity level (t) x correction factor x carbon leakage factor
• Grandparenting allocation: Average GHG emissions of base year x correction factor x carbon leakage factor
The carbon leakage factor was 1.0 for sectors exposed to significant risk; for non-EITE sectors, it was 0.9.
Auctioning: Bidders could purchase a maximum of 15% of the allowances on offer.
Auction share: At least 10% of allocation to entities in sub-sectors was subject to auctioning. Entities from 41 sub-sectors, excluding EITE sectors, could participate in auctions.
Auction supply: 23.5 million allowances (KAU2021), 18.2 million allowances (KAU2022), and 16.2 million allowances (KAU2023) which represented ~3% of the 589.3 MtCO2e 2023 cap (excluding reserves).
PHASE 4:
Free Allocation: Sectors at risk of carbon leakage receive 100% free allocation. The share of sector-specific benchmarking is to reach 77% and has been expanded to a total of 15 sub-sectors: grey clinker, oil refining, domestic aviation, waste, industrial parks, electricity generation, district heating/cooling, steel, petrochemicals, buildings, paper and wood processing, with the addition of semiconductors, displays, and non-ferrous metals as well as fuel use by all industries. EITE sectors receive 100% free allocation if they meet the following criteria:
Carbon intensity x trade intensity ≥ 0.1%
Allocation is calculated using:
• Benchmark allocation
• Grandparenting allocation
Auctioning: The auctioning share for the power generation sector will be gradually raised to 50% by 2030. Other non-power sectors will face a 15% auction rate.
Auction supply: 260 million allowances for the entire Phase 4
KAU2026: 17 million allowances
Auctioning represents ~11% of the 2,360 MtCO2e Phase 4 cap (excluding reserves).
KRW 1.55 trillion (USD 1.25 billion) since the beginning of the program
KRW 189.2 billion (USD 133 million) in 2025
- Climate mitigation
- Low-carbon innovation
- Assistance for individuals, households, and businesses
Revenues from auctioning go into the Climate Response Fund, financing NDC-aligned emissions reduction investments, low-carbon technology deployment and commercialization, support for the transition of carbon-intensive sectors and affected stakeholders, and the operation and strengthening of ETS-related infrastructure.
Climate Response Fund Expenditures
| Revenue Use Purpose | 2022 | 2023 | 2024 |
| GHG reduction | USD 697 million | USD 724.1 million | USD 718million |
| Creating low-carbon ecosystem | USD 472.3 million | USD 467.1 million | USD 445 million |
| Just transition | USD 134.8 million | USD 149.6 million | USD 144.8 million |
| Building carbon neutral foundation | USD 423.4 million | USD 460.6 million | USD 350.9 million |
| Other | USD 77.4 million | USD 23.7 million | USD 96.6 million |
| Total | USD 1,804.9 million | USD 1,824.9 million | USD 1,755.3 million |
Flexibility & Linking
Banking is allowed with restrictions across and within phases.
Borrowing is allowed within a single trading phase.
PHASE 1: Borrowing was limited to 20% of an entity’s obligation.
PHASE 2: From Phase 2 to Phase 3, banking was initially limited to the higher of two limits: the net annual number of allowances sold by the entity in Phase 2; or company- and facility-specific limits of 250,000 KAUs and 5,000 KAUs, respectively. Borrowing was limited to 15% of an entity’s obligation in 2018.
Rules on banking and borrowing were adjusted in 2019. The borrowing limit was set by each entity’s past borrowing activity, according to the following formula: Compliance obligation of the entity x [Borrowing limit of previous year – (“borrowing ratio” in previous year x 50%)]/entity’s emission volume.
The banking limit for the transition between Phase 2 and Phase 3 was calculated as follows:
• For 2018 vintage allowances, entities could bank either three times the net sales (total allowances sold minus total allowances bought) or 75,000 allowances for companies emitting >125,000 tCO2e or 15,000 allowances for companies emitting >25,000 tCO2e — whichever was higher;
• For KAU19s, the amounts above were reduced by one-third, i.e., two times the net selling amount or 50,000 for large entities (10,000 for smaller entities) allowances, whichever was higher;
• For KAU20s, the amount represented a two-third reduction compared to the KAU18 rule.
PHASE 3: In the first trading year, entities could borrow up to 15% of their compliance obligation. From the second to fourth trading years, the same borrowing formula as for 2019 applied.
Banking in Phase 3:
• In the first and second compliance years (2021 and 2022), entities could bank up to double their net number of KAUs and Korean Credit Units (KCUs) sold on the secondary market (excluding swaps and auctions).
• In the third and fourth compliance years (2023 and 2024), entities’ banking limits were equal to their net number of allowances (total allowances sold minus total allowances bought) and offset credits sold.
Phase 3 allowances and offset credits could only be carried over to the first compliance year of Phase 4 (2026 to 2030). The banking limit in the fifth compliance year (2025) had been expanded to “five times of net sales”.
PHASE 4: In the first trading year, entities can borrow up to 30% of their compliance obligation. From the second to fourth trading years, the same borrowing formula as for 2019 applies.
Banking: Gradual easing of carry-over restrictions:
2026: Companies with a surplus can bank allowances equivalent to six times their net sales
2027: Seven times their net sales
2028: Eight times their net sales
2029: Nine times their net sales
2030: Ten times their net sales
The net sales condition is not applied to short companies.
Domestic offset credits, i.e., Korean Offset Credits (KOCs), were allowed in Phase 1. KOCs and international credits (subject to qualitative criteria) have been allowed since Phase 2. Both domestic and international credits must be converted to KCUs to be used for compliance.
PHASE 1:
Qualitative limit: The use only of domestic offset credits from external reduction activities implemented by non-ETS entities — and that met international standards — was allowed. Domestic CDM credits (CERs) and KOCs were allowed. Eligible activities included those permitted under the CDM plus carbon capture and storage, and had to have been implemented after mid-April 2010.
Quantitative limit: Up to 10% of each entity’s compliance obligation.
PHASE 2:
Qualitative limit: The use of CERs generated from June 2016 from international CDM projects developed by Korean companies was allowed if:
• at least 20% of the ownership rights, operating rights, or the voting stocks were owned by a Korean company; or
• a Korean company supplied low-carbon technology worth at least 20% of the total project cost.
Quantitative limit: Up to 10% of each entity’s compliance obligation (of which up to 5% could be international offset credits).
PHASE 3:
Qualitative limit: The use of offset credits was allowed according to the same qualitative criteria outlined for Phase 2. However, limitations applied to the issuance and conversion of credits:
• GHG reduction projects (according to reduction period coverage) to KOC conversion: 1) April 2010 to December 2020: within two years (2021 to 2022); 2) January 2021 onwards: within two years (2022 to 2023).
• KOC to KCU conversion: within five years of KOC issuance.
Quantitative limit: Up to 5% of each entity’s compliance obligation, regardless of type.
As of December 2024, there were 317 registered methodologies (211 for CDM and 106 for domestic offset credits). The government aims to use 37.5 million international credits to fulfill its 2030 NDC.
For the 2022 compliance period, 7.6 million KOCs, 7 million of which were from domestic projects and the remainder from overseas projects, were converted into KCU22s, all of which were used for surrender of emission permits (65 entities).
In the 2023 compliance period, 7.6 million KOCs (1.6 million from domestic projects and 6 million from overseas) were converted into KCU23s. Only 732,872 were submitted for compliance.
In the 2024 compliance period, 1.9 million KOCs (1.7 million from domestic projects and 0.2 million from overseas) were converted into KCU24s. Only 71,491 were submitted for compliance.
Allocation was largely sufficient to cover compliance obligations, which can explain the drop in offset use.
PHASE 4:
Qualitative limit: The use of offset credits is allowed. Domestic credits can be supplied by entities that are not subject to legal obligations under the K-ETS and that began after December 2016, the domestic entry into force of the Paris Agreement. International ex post credits that comply with international rules of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement are accepted. Additionally, credits from old projects that started after 2010 are accepted.
Quantitative limit: Up to 5% of each entity’s compliance obligation, regardless of type.
The K-ETS is not linked with any other system.
Compliance
One year. Entities must surrender allowances for the previous year by the end of August.
FRAMEWORK:
The legal basis is contained in the “Act on the Allocation and Trading of Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowances” and the “Enforcement Decree of the ETS Act”. Administrative rules on the MRV system are contained in the “Guidelines on Reporting and Certification of Emissions under the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading System”.
MONITORING: Monitoring may be conducted either periodically or continuously using approved measurement devices, in accordance with an entity’s monitoring plan, while emissions reporting and third-party verification are carried out on an annual basis. The monitoring plan must define core elements, including company information and organizational boundaries, facility-level monitoring methodologies, activity data measurement points, tier selection, QA/QC procedures, and plans for developing emission factors. MRV requirements also extend beyond the ETS to non-ETS entities designated under the TMS, under which companies with annual emissions below 50,000 tCO2e (or below 15,000 tCO2e at the worksite level) are required to submit a verified emissions statement.
REPORTING: Annual reporting of emissions from the previous year must be submitted by the end of March. Liable entities are required to revise and resubmit emission reports which are found to be incorrect.
VERIFICATION: Emissions must be verified by a third-party verifier. Emission reports are reviewed and certified by the Certification Committee of the Ministry of Environment by the end of May.
The penalty shall not exceed either three times the average market price of allowances of the given compliance year.
Market Regulation
MARKET PARTICIPATION: Compliance entities. Limited participation for non-compliance entities. Initially limited to compliance entities, the “market maker” system was introduced in Phase 2 to improve market liquidity. Market makers are third-party participants in the K-ETS who can draw on a separate government-held reserve of allowances set aside at the time of original allocation, to increase liquidity in the market through daily allowance trade. Three new financial firms were appointed in 2021, in addition to the two market makers that had been appointed in 2019. In December 2022, the government announced a further two market makers who began operating from 2023. Eight market makers were appointed later in 2023. In 2025, a total of nine market makers were admitted to the K-ETS market.
From Phase 3, as per the 2012 “Emissions Trading Act” and the Presidential Decree, non-compliance entities in the form of other non-market maker domestic financial intermediaries can participate in the secondary market and trade allowances on the Korea Exchange (KRX). In line with this, 20 financial intermediaries were approved for participation in the carbon market from 2021 (the total as of December 2025 was 21 financial intermediaries). Though they initially could only hold up to 200,000 allowances each, to avoid excessive market shares, this number was increased to 500,000 in December 2022, and to 1 million in 2023.
MARKET TYPES:
Primary: Monthly auctions have been held since 2019. Auctions are open to all companies with compliance obligations under the K-ETS. Auctions take place via the KRX.
Secondary: The K-ETS has traditionally had a high share of over-the-counter transactions. Additionally, the KRX manages the platform where secondary spot market transactions take place. Allowances, KCUs, and KOCs are traded on the exchange for different vintage years. Consignment trading was launched in November 2025.
LEGAL STATUS OF ALLOWANCES: The legal status of KAUs is not explicitly referenced in the 2012 Emissions Trading Act or the Presidential Decree. However, KAUs are not regulated under financial market law. For the purpose of preventing market price manipulation, unfair trade and to regulate exchange of information, Article 22, paragraph 3 of the Act specifies that certain provisions of the “Capital Market and Financial Investment Business Act” apply.
KOREAN MARKET STABILITY RESERVE (K-MSR)
Instrument type: Quantity-based and price-based instrument
Functioning of the quantity-based mechanism: The fourth allocation plan announced the establishment of a quantity-based K-MSR, which is to be detailed in the first half of 2026, after public consultation. 85 million allowances will be placed in the K-MSR for Phase 4.
Functioning of the price-based mechanism: An Allocation Committee is in place to implement market stabilization measures if:
• the market allowance price of six consecutive months is at least three times higher than the average price of the two previous years;
• the market allowance price of the last month is at least double the average price of the two previous years and the average trading volume of the last month is at least twice the volume of the same month of the two previous years;
• the average market allowance price of a given month is lower than 60% of the average price of the two previous years; or
• it is difficult to trade allowances due to an imbalance of supply or demand.
Stabilization measures include:
• additional auctioning of up to 25% of allowances from the market stabilization reserve, which contains 14.3 million allowances;
• the establishment of a limit to the number of allowances entities can hold: minimum (70%) or maximum (150%) of the allowances of the compliance year;
• an increase or decrease of the borrowing limit;
• an increase or decrease of the offset limit; and
• the temporary establishment of a price ceiling or price floor.
In 2018, the Allocation Committee put up for auction an additional 5.5 million allowances from the stability reserve to ease the market in the lead-up to the 2017 compliance deadline; 4.7 million of these were sold. No more such sales have occurred since.
In 2021, the Allocation Committee set a price floor of KRW 12,900 (USD 9.47) per tonne in April and KRW 9,450 (USD 6.93) per tonne in June.
In 2023, the government set two temporary price floors. The measure’s trigger price remained at an average of KRW 12,088 (USD 8.87), calculated as 60% of the average price from the preceding two years. The first price floor of KRW 7,020 (USD 5.15) was established in July and the last price floor of KRW 7,750 (USD 5.69) was set in November and lifted in early December (when prices were maintained at KRW 8,520 (UDS 6.25) for five consecutive days).
Other Information
Ministry of Climate, Energy and Environment: Holds overall responsibility for the K-ETS.
Ministry of Economy and Finance: Established the Allocation Committee; briefly held overall responsibility for the K-ETS between June 2016 and January 2018.
Korea Exchange (KRX): Trading and auctioning platform.
Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Research Center (GIR): Responsible for the registry and technical implementation.
International Carbon Reduction Council: Ministry-level body that promotes GHG reduction projects.
The GIR regularly releases evaluation reports with emissions statistics, market indicators, and survey results from covered entities.
The 2024 report states that verified emissions from 735 entities receiving allocated allowances totaled 549.9 MtCO2e in 2023 – 3.9% lower than the previous year (572.0 Mt, 713 entities). All covered entities met their surrender obligations. While certified emissions exceeded allocations in buildings, waste, and public services sectors, all sectors met targets through trading, banking, and offset mechanisms.
Power sector (60 entities): 212.0 Mt, down 18.2 Mt (7.9%) due to lower electricity demand, increased carbon-free generation, and reduced coal/LNG-based generation.
Industry sector (476 entities): 311.3 Mt, down 4.4 Mt (1.4%), driven by global economic slowdown, sluggish construction, and expanded GHG reduction facilities for semiconductor processing.
Buildings sector (40 entities): 4.9 Mt, down 0.05 Mt (0.9%), attributed to reduced city gas consumption from higher temperatures and increased gas prices.
Transport sector (67 entities): 6.7 Mt, down 0.03 Mt (0.5%), reflecting reduced travel distances in railway and aviation, plus increased zero-emission vehicle supply.
Act on the Allocation and Trading of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allowances
Enforcement Decree of the Act on the Allocation and Trading of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allowances
First Basic Plan for the ETS (2015 to 2024)
Second Basic Plan for the ETS (2017 to 2026)
Third Basic Plan of the ETS (2021 to 2030)